Jê languages

The Jê languages (also spelled Gê, Jean, Ye, Gean), or Jê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by the Jê, a group of indigenous peoples in Brazil.

Genetic relations

The Jê family forms the core of the Macro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal convincing.

Family division

According to Ethnologue (which omits Jeikó), the language family is as follows:

• Jeikó (†)
• Northern Jê
  • Apinayé (2,300 speakers)
  • Mẽbengokre (Kayapó) (8,638 speakers)
  • Panará (Kreen Akarore) (380 speakers)
  • Suyá (350 speakers)
  • Timbira (Canela-Krayô, with the Canela and Kreye dialects) (5,100 speakers)
• Central Jê
  • Acroá (†)
  • Xavante (9,600 speakers)
  • Xerente (1,810 speakers)
  • Xakriabá (†)
• Southern Jê
  • Xokleng (760 speakers)
  • Kaingáng
    • Kaingáng (18,000 speakers)
    • São Paulo Kaingáng (†)
    • Ingain (†)
    • Guayana (†)

Ramirez (2015)

Internal classification of the Jê languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):

Jê

• Southern Jê (dialect continuum)
  • Ingain ↔ Xokleng ↔ Kaigáng
• Northern Jê
  • Jê proper (Timbira-Kayapó dialect continuum)
    • Canela-Krahô ↔ Gavião-Krĩkati ↔ Apinajé ↔ Kayapó ↔ Suyá-Tapayuna ↔ Panará-Kayapó do Sul
  • Akuwẽ (various microdialects)
    • Xavante
    • Xerente (including Xakriabá, Akroá, Gueguê)

Ramirez excludes Jaikó as a possibly spurious language.

Nikulin (2020)

According to Nikulin (2020), the internal branching of the Jê language family is as follows:

Jê

• Paraná
  • Ingain
  • Southern Jê
    • Kaingáng
    • Laklãnõ
• Cerrado
  • Akuwẽ
    • Xerénte
    • Xavánte
    • Xakriabá
    • Acroá
  • Goyaz Jê
    • Southern Kayapó
      • Mossâmedes dialect
      • Triângulo dialect
        • Panará
    • Northern Jê
      • Timbíra
        • Parkatêjê; Kỳikatêjê
        • Core Timbíra
          • Krikati; Pykobjê
          • Krahô; Canela (dialects: Apànjêkra, Mẽmõrtũmre)
      • Trans-Tocantins
        • Apinajé
        • Trans-Araguaia
          • Mẽbêngôkre (dialects: Xikrín, Kayapó)
          • Tapajós
            • Kĩsêdjê
            • Tapayúna

Some sound changes and lexical innovations that define various Jê subgroups:

• Proto-Southern Jê *a < *Proto-Jê *ô
• Proto-Cerrado *wa < Proto-Jê *ô
• Proto-Goyaz Jê: *am, *um, *ɨm > *ãm, *ũm, *ɨ̃m
  • Proto-Northern Jê: replacement of *kakũm ‘dry season’ (as in Panará akũŋ and Proto-Central Jê transl. mis – transl. '*wahum) with *aŋgrə
  • Proto-Timbíra: *c > *h
  • Proto-Trans-Tocantins: replacement of *a-mbə ‘eat (intransitive)’ with *ap-ku

Varieties

Below is a full list of Jê language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.

Proto-language

Nikulin (2020)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020):

For a more complete list of Proto-Jê reconstructions, as well as Proto-Southern Jê reconstructions, see the corresponding Portuguese article.

Ribeiro & van der Voort (2010)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010):

References